The dispersed habitat of Old Catalonia and the absence of formal local bylaws (on the order of the German Weistümer) did not prevent the formation of syndicates of remenees in the fifteenth century and of military units supported by villagers at the time of the Catalan Civil War.Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)Simon concludes with a formulation of the problem answered by his history: it was his own wicked actions that differentiated one Hungarian from another, for otherwise how to explain why those sharing the same parentage should be noble and ignoble?

The population realized that their situation was even worse with All this took Olivares and the high Spanish class officials by surprise.

Long before 1348, it is true, rural society was punctuated by regional insurrections such as the Stellinga Revolt in Saxony (841-842) or small revolts in particular locales such as the attempt by tenants of Darnell and Over in the north of England in the early fourteenth century to procure their freedom from serfdom by legal as well as violent means. It therefore sanctioned servitude as a custom of equal age with the polity itself.In Hungary one finds a very similar historical/mythical justification for servitude. In the West, the attempt of lords to extract more from their tenants by either imposing serfdom or more rigid enforcement of its bonds was unsuccessful. The effective elaboration of servitude as a routine practice, however, dates from the thirteenth century.Simon of Kéza was the first Hungarian chronicler to accept the Western belief that the Magyars were descendants of the Huns. These did not always go in tandem.

Emphyteusis and the various layers of leases and sub-leases created a privileged category of nominal tenant, sometimes technically unfree, who had extensive holdings on favorable terms that were cultivated by others. The chronology of enserfment was more compressed in Hungary. [24]So far the distinction is simply between nobles and everyone else, but later historians and jurists would use this passage to justify the servitude of some Hungarians and the privileges of others.

[34] Although we were accustomed to thinking of the image of the Huns as entirely negative or destructive, they are portrayed favorably in such medieval works as the German In both Hungary and Catalonia (more so in Hungary), serfdom was a relatively recent institution, one that was not easily explicable in terms of customary law and practice.

[26]In both Hungary and Catalonia, therefore, the defense of servitude was maintained by reference to very similar myths of national origin. The clergy preached against the soldiers of the But it's not only kings who change allies like a top model changes her hair colour. In Catalonia this courage was demonstrated against the Moors in a species of religious war that was also a battle of national liberation. There was a seigneurial reaction everywhere in Europe that attempted to salvage feudal revenues. Throughout western Europe, however, in contrast with the East, the legal condition of the peasantry was free. In Catalonia the formation of syndicates of remenees in 1448-1449 provided an occasion to dispute the nobles’ myth. Both Vladislav II and Joan II were opposed by a nobility who could claim to be defending the customs of the nation against foreig-ners, the Polish-Bohemian Jagiello dynasty in one instance and the Trastàmaras in the other. As hereditary tenants of specific parcels of land, the peasants could resist seigneurial efforts at consolidation and their work for their masters was difficult to supervise. [51] It was argued that the ancestors of the remenees had been not timid Christians but rather Muslims, and that servitude was instituted to encourage conversion, not as a perpetual sentence.

In both Catalonia and Hungary at the end of the Middle Ages a substantial portion of the peasantry were serfs.

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